James M. Cain s Mildred Pierce - 765 Words

The process of converting a work of art from one medium to another often requires a significant alteration of the content to fit the form and standards of the new medium. Adapted from 300-page novel to a 2-hour movie, Michael Curtiz’s Mildred Pierce is a prime example of a loose Hollywood adaption that makes drastic changes in characters, narrative configurations, and framing structure to conform to the standards and expectations of American cinema. Most ostensibly, the movie employs murder as a framing device and a hook to draw the audience’s attention to Mildred’s story, therefore transforming the linear, chronological plot of the novel into an episodic and achronological one. As a result, in Curtiz’s film adaptation of James M. Cain’s Mildred Pierce, we see several plot points in the story abbreviated and diminished, and many of the themes in the novel either lost or reduced. Both versions of Mildred Pierce depict the struggle of a woman during the post-Depression era to become independent after separating from her husband. In the book as well as the movie, Mildred’s actions and trials are a result of her desire to please Veda. She struggles to find a job and hustles to keep her restaurant business together to become financially independent so she can afford Veda the lavish lifestyle she craves. Near the beginning of the movie, we see a heartbroken Mildred who just discovered that the dress she has worked so hard to buy for Veda is nothing more to her than just a rag.Show MoreRelatedJames M. Cain s Mildred Pierce And The Movie Version ``896 Words   |  4 Pagesdisloyalty to the original author and readers. However, in 1945 Warner Bros. produced the movie Mildred Pierce based on the same name novel written by James M. Cain. This film not only became an exception in this general view, but also amazed the audience and even Cain himself by extraord inary performances and unique edit technique and literary point of view. There are a few distinctions between Cain’s Mildred Pierce and the movie version, mostly with the ingenious use of different point of views in severalRead More Themes in the Novel and Movie Adaptation of James Cain’s Mildred Pierce1573 Words   |  7 PagesAdaptation of James Cain’s Mildred Pierce In contemporary film making, â€Å"Hollywood-ization† generally refers to the re-creation of a classic work in a form more vulgar and sexually explicit than the original in an effort to boost movie attendance. After all, sex and violence sell. However, from the mid-1930’s to the 1950’s, â€Å"Hollywood-ization† referred to the opposite case where controversial books had to be purified to abide by the Production Code of 1934.[1] This occurred to many of James Cain’sRead More James M. Cains Novel Mildred Pierce: Comparing the Book and Movie Version869 Words   |  4 PagesJames M. Cains Novel Mildred Pierce: Comparing the Book and Movie Version Mildred Pierce is one of the greatest novels written by James M. Cain. After the success of the novel, the Hollywood film came out, produced by Jerry Wald. The novel and the movie are very different from each other. â€Å"James M. Cain sent several letters of complaint to producer Jerry Wald, objecting to the changes Wald wanted to make, especially the dramatic idea of making Veda a washout musically and putting her inRead MoreThe Studio System Essay14396 Words   |  58 Pagescomplete control over design decisions, the personnel of the department, the assignment of tasks, and the attribution of credit. In the autocratic system that prevailed at MGM Gibbons had complete control. According to the director, Pandro S. Berman, He was the most influential person on the lot except for the owners, Nick Schenk in New York and Louis B. Mayer in Culver City (Affron 17). Gibbons was nominated for the Academy Award for Art Direction 40 times. He received

Teacher Expectancy Effect - 2016 Words

3.1 Teacher Expectancy Effect When we discuss about the interactionist (or symbolic interactionist) view in the context of educational institutions, teacher expectancy effect would be one of the major areas affecting the growth and improvement of students both in academically and in extra-curricular, mentally and physically. In other words, teacher expectancy effect is something that ties closely to the social development of the students as a whole. Teacher expectancy effect is defined as â€Å"the impact that a teacher’s expectations about a student’s performance may have on the student’s actual achievements† (Schaefer amp; Lamm, 1995, p. 461). However, before we look at what teacher expectancy effect really is, it is crucial for us to†¦show more content†¦Note that these classifications (â€Å"better†, â€Å"average† and â€Å"weakest†) were all defined solely by the teacher according to her impressionistic perception, with nothing whatsoever like a pla cement test. This categorization was also found to be based on the social classes of the students, whereby the â€Å"better† ones belong to a higher social class and the â€Å"weakest† one from lower social classes (Covington, 1992, p.140). Other researchers have also been carried out since then and the expectancy effect seems to thrive in all context of social life be it with university scholar at higher educational institutions or working adults at manufacturing company. This phenomenon has also been later coined as the â€Å"Pygmalion phenomenon† (Rhem, 1999). 3.1.2 Implications of teacher expectancy effect Hence, after we look at all these case studies, we could conclude that the students’ academic performance is clearly tied to teacher’s expectation. In other words, the students who were deemed as â€Å"better† or â€Å"good† ends up achieving better also due to the higher expectation that the teacher was giving to them. These result, especially Rosenthal and Jacobson’s, demonstrated extremely powerful self-fulfilling prophecy on the part of the teacher. This is because when a teacher forms certain expectations towards their students based on whatever characteristicsShow MoreRelatedExpectancy Violation Theory And Its Significance1650 Words   |  7 Pagesreviews expectancy violation theory and its significance in understanding interpersonal communication. The theory highlights the unexpected behavior of human being while interacting (Dainton, 2011). This theory is based on the reduction uncertainty where ambiguity on behaviors of others is reduced through interaction. Expectancy violations theory offers some prospect to compare the personality of traditional empiricism with humanism. The theory was developed from the Nonverbal expectancy violationRead MoreA Study on Operant and Classical Conditioning1477 Words   |  6 Pagesis made and increases tendency to make the response. A middle school teacher intercepted a note that contained personal information, read it out loud, and the student the note was intended for leaves the class and school, feels sick at going to school the next day, and becomes ill at the thought of the teacher. This is a classical conditioning case. (Daniels, 2009). If the students behavior had happened before the teacher intercepted the note and read it out loud, it would have been a case ofRead MorePiagets Four Stages of Cognitive Development1621 Words   |  7 Pages892 Describe the ‘expectancy cycle’ and outline the practical implications that this model holds for a coach in a sport of your choice. â€Å"Expectancies are defined as beliefs about a future state of affairs that allow individuals to develop rules and make predictions about the world around them†. (Manley 2009). Expectancy can have a huge impact on an athletes performance or careers. Expectancy was first implemented within the classroom by teachers. In the 1960s teachers started to have differentRead MoreEssay on Motivational Plan1257 Words   |  6 PagesDouglas C. Soles Grand Canyon University: EDA 575 January 12, 2011 There are five basic theories of motivation. 1) Self-determination theory states that people have three basic needs. 2) Attribution theory wants to know why things happen. 3) Expectancy-value theory is interested in a person’s beliefs about abilities. 4) Social cognitive theory states that human behavior comes from their attributes. 5) Goal orientation theory wants to know the reasons for doing tasks. Self-Determination Theory Read MoreSolutions for Low Life Expectancy Essay861 Words   |  4 PagesINVESTIGATE TWO POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO LOW LIFE EXPECTANCY Life expectancy is the average period of a person may expect to live. The life expectancy can be predict or calculate by the analysis of life tables which is also known as the actuarial table. The term that is known as life expectancy is most often used in the context of human population in a country. It also can be said that the average life expectancy of an individual depends on the importance they give on their health. CurrentlyRead MoreThe Theory Of The Expectancy Violation Theory1668 Words   |  7 Pagestakes into account pre-existing and external factors. Burgoon’s Expectancy Violations Theory analyses people’s reactions to unanticipated violations of social norms or expectations. This theory discusses many of the different factors that play a role when individuals form their expectancies such as context, relationship, communicator characteristics, and nonverbal communication. This paper analyses the pros and cons of the Expectancy Violation Theory. It argues why this theory satisfies enough ofRead MoreRewards And Punishment At School Learning1048 Words   |  5 Pagespunishment had a greater effect on behavior. Once analyzed, the results showed that punishment and reward do not have a symmetric law of effect. In fact, giving a punishment had a stronger effect on behavior than giving a reward. Introduction A staggering twelve years is spent in school learning about a variety of pertinent subjects. Teachers, the people that work in these learning institutes have used both reward and punishment to guide behavior. For instance, some teachers offer a prize to whoeverRead MoreThe Value Percept Theory : Job Satisfaction991 Words   |  4 Pages If direction, intensity, and persistence are high, motivational efforts to achieve a goal will be successful. Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are used to determine how motivated an individual will be to pursue a particular goal, stated in Vrooms Expectancy theory. This theory is based on the mental process an individual has regarding their choice to apply effort. Expectancy is the belief that if an individual exerts the effort, it will result to the desired performance goal. Self-efficacyRead MoreHow Osteogenesis Imperfecta Is A Disease That Effects Children888 Words   |  4 PagesOsteogenesis Imperfecta, also known as Brittle Bone Disease, is a disease that effects bones and joints. Osteogenesis Imperfecta is a disease that effects child, and most often children are born with this disease. In some cases the disease may take a couple years to show symptoms, but more often than not the disease is recognized when the child is born. â€Å"Osteogenesis Imperfecta is caused by a defect in the gene which produces collagen 1, an important building block of bone† (Osteogenesis). The bonesRead MoreOperant Conditioning and Skinners Method1158 Words   |  5 Pagesbehavior could be explained both by internal and external factors. I. Examples of Operant Conditioning Examples of Operant conditioning can be found in all areas of life such as children who complete homework and earn a reward from their parents or teacher or employees who complete projects and receive promotions or raises in pay. Cherry (2007) states that the promise of the rewards results in an increase in a specific behavior or alternatively the decrease in a specific and undesired behavior. Operant

Chile Political Parties And Organizations Essay Example For Students

Chile Political Parties And Organizations Essay Taking a look at Chile’s government and institutions it gives the idea that the average person is represented. Chilean people have a history of strong political ties and many private associations and organizations. This has been helpful in taking care that many interests and needs are expressed within the government. Perhaps even more helpful is the development of many different political parties, whom, for the most part represent many of these organizations and associations in the government. In order to evaluate these institutions a closer look must be taken at each to understand fully the amount of organization that is in place. In the 1990’s Chile had a strong, ideological based multiparty system with a clear division between the parties of the right, center, and left. Traditionally the parties have national in scope penetrating into other more remote regions. Party affiliation had been had served as the organizing concept in many leadership contests in universities and private associations, such as labor unions and professional associations. Political tendencies are passed from generation to generation and constitute an important part of an individual’s identity. By the middle of the twentieth century, each of Chile’s political tendencies represented one-third of the electorate. The left was dominated by the Socialist Party (Partido Socialista) and the Communist Party of Chile (Partido Communista de Chile), the right by the Liberal Party (PartidoLiberal) and the Conservative Party (Partido Conservador), and the center by the anticlerical Radical Party (Partido Radical) which was replac ed as Chile’s dominant party by the Christian Democratic Party (Partido Democrata Cristiano) in the 1960s. The Communist Party of Chile (PPCh) is the oldest and largest communist party in Latin America and one of the most important in the West. Tracing it’s origins to 1912, the party was officially founded in1922 as the successor to the Socialist Workers’ Party. It achieved congressional representation shortly thereafter and played a leading role in the development of the Chilean labor movement. Concern over the party’s success at building a strong electoral base, combined with the onset of the Cold War, led to its being outlawed in 1948, a status it had to endure for almost a decade. However by midcentury it had become a genuine political subculture with its own symbols and organizations and the support of prominent artists and intellectuals. The PPCh’s strong stand against registration of voters and participation in elections alienated many of its own supporters and long-time militants who understood that most of the citizens supported a peaceful return to de mocracy. The dramatic failure of the PCCh’s strategy seriously undermined its credibility and contributed to the growing withdrawal from its ranks. The party was also hurt by the vast structural changes in Chilean society, the decline of traditional manufacturing and extractive industries and the weakening of the labor movement in particular. The collapse of the Soviet Union and its East European allies represented the final blow. The Socialist Party (PS), formally organized in 1933, had its origins in the incipiant labor movement and working-class parties of the earlier twentieth century. The Socialist Party was far more mixed than the PCCh, drawing support from the blue-collar workers a well as intellectuals and members of the middle-class. Throughout most of its history, the Socialist Party suffered from a large number of factions. Resulting from rivalries and fundamental disagreements between leaders advocating revolution and those willing to work within the system. The Socialist Party’s greatest moment was the election of Salvador Allende to the presidency in 1970. Allende represented the moderate wing of a party that had veered sharply to the left. The Socialist Party’s radical orientation contributed to continuous political tension as the president and the PCCh argues for a more gradual approach to change and the Socialists sought to press for immediate conquests for the middle class. Prior to the 1988 election, the Socialists launched the Party for Democracy (Partido por la DemocraciaPPD) in an effort to provide a broad base of opposition to Pinochet. Led by Lagos, an economist and former university administrator, the PPD was supposed to be an instrumental party that would disappear after the defeat of Pinochet. But the partys success in capturing the imagination of many Chileans led Socialist and PPD leaders to keep the party label for the subsequent congressional and municipal elections, working jointly with the Christian Democrats in structuring national lists of candidates. The success of the PPD soon created a serious dilemma for the Socialist Party, which managed to reunite its principal factions the relatively conservative Socialist Party-Almeyda, the moderate Socialist Party-Nez renewalists, and the left-wing Unitary Socialistsat the Social Party congress in December 1990. Previously an instrument of the Socialists, the PPD became a party in its own right, even though many Socialists had dual membership. Although embracing social democratic ideals, PPD leaders appeared more willing to press ahead on other unresolved social issues such as divorce and womens rights, staking out a distinct position as a center-left secular force in Chilean society capable of challenging the Christian Democrats as well as the right on a series of critical issues. As the PPD grew, leaders of the Socialist Party insisted on abolishing dual membership for fear of losing their capacity to enlarge the appeal of the Socialist Party beyond its traditional constituency. By 1993 both parties, working together in a somewhat tense relationship, had comparable levels of popular support in opinion. The Christian Democratic Party (PDC), was formally established in 1957. It adopted its present name after uniting with several other centrist groups. It elected Frei to the Senate while capturing fourteen seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The party polled 20 percent of the vote in the presidential race in 1958, with Frei as standard-bearer. In 1964, with the support of the right, which feared the election of Allende, Frei was elected president on a platform proclaiming a third way between Marxism and capitalism, a form of communitarian socialism of cooperatives and self-managed worker enterprise. In the aftermath of the military regime, the PDC emerged as Chiles largest party, with the support of about 35 percent of the electorate. The PDC had been divided internally by a series of ideo;ogical, generational, and factional rivalries. The PDC, however, retained a commitment to social justices while embracing the fre-market policies instituted by the military government. Although the Ay lwin administration was a coalition government, the PDC secured ten of twenty cabinet seats. In the 1989 elections, the Christian Democrats also obtained the largest number of congressional seats, with fourteen in the Senate and thirty-eight in the Chamber of Deputies. In October 1991, in a major challenge to President Aylwin and the traditional leadership of the party, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle was elected PDC president, placing him in a privileged position to run for president as the candidate of the CPD. Another party that could be classified as centrist was the Radical Party, whose political importance outweighed its electoral presence. The Radical Party owed its survival as a political force to the binomial electoral law inherited from the military government and the desire of the Christian Democrats to use the Radical Party as a foil against the left. It was to the Christian Democrats advantage to provide relatively more space to the Radicals on the joint lists than to their str onger PPD partners. The Radicals succeeded in electing two senators and five deputies in 1989 and were allotted two out of twenty cabinet ministers, despite polls reporting that they had less than 2 percent support nationally. It remained to be seen if, over the long run, the Radical Party could compete with Chiles other major parties, particularly the PPD, which had moved closest to the Radical Partys traditional position on the political spectrum. In 1965, following the dramatic rise of the Christian Democrats, primarily at their expense, Chiles two traditional right-wing parties, the Liberal Party and Conservative Party, merged into the National Party (Partido NacionalPN). Their traditional disagreements over issues such as the proper role of the Roman Catholic Church in society paled by comparison with the challenge posed by the left to private property and Chiles hierarchical social order. The new party, energized by the presidential candidacy of Jorge Alessandri in 1970, helpe d the right regain some of its lost electoral ground. The National Party won 21.1 percent of the vote in the 1973 congressional elections, the last before the coup. The National Party was at the forefront of the opposition to the Allende government, working closely with elements of the business community. National Party leaders welcomed the coup and, unlike the Christian Democrats, were content to accept the military authorities injunction that parties go into recess. Until 1984 the National Party remained failing, with most of the party leaders concerning themselves with private pursuits or an occasional embassy post. With Pinochets defeat, the National Renewal partys prestige rose considerably. In the aftermath of the plebiscite, National Renewal worked closely with the other opposition parties to propose far-reaching amendments to the constitution. The National Renewal party, however, could not impose its own party president, having to concede the presidential candidacy of the ri ght to the UDIs B?chi. After the 1989 congressional race, the National Renewal party emerged as the dominant party of the right, benefiting strongly from the electoral law and electing six senators and twenty-nine deputies. Its strength in the Senate meant that the Aylwin government had to compromise with the National Renewal party to gain support for key legislative and constitutional measures. The National Renewal party saw much of its support wane in the wake of party scandals involving its most promising presidential candidates. While the RN drew substantial support from rural areas and traditional small businessmen, the UDI appealed to new entrepreneurial elites and middle sectors in Chiles rapidly growing modern sector. The UDI also made inroads in low-income neighborhoods with special programs appealing to the poor, a legacy of the Pinochet regimes urban policy. The assassination of UDI founder Senator Jaime Guzm?n Err?zuriz on April 1, 1991, was a serious blow, depriving the party of its strongest leader. Chileans have a remarkable facility for forming organizations and associations. In contrast to North Americans, however, Chileans usually take a formal approach to creating organizations. In addition to electing a president, a treasurer, a secretary, and perhaps a few officers, they prefer to discuss and approve a statement of purpose and some statutes. This is a ritual even for organizations that need not register legally, obtaining what is called a juridical personality that will enable them to open bank accounts and to buy and sell properties. Observers of Chilean society are rapidly struck by the density of its organizational life and the relatively high degree of continuity of its organizations and associations In any Chilean community of appreciable size can be found sports clubs, mothers clubs, neighborhood associations, parent centers linked to schools, church-related organizations, youth groups, and cultural clubs, as well as Masonic lodges a nd Rotary and Lions clubs. Virtually all of the nations fire fighters are volunteers, with the exception of members of a few fire departments in the largest cities. Government statistics greatly understate the number of community organizations because they refer mainly to those having some contact with one or another state office. According to the official estimate for 1991, there were about 22,000 such organizations, the main ones being sports clubs neighborhood councils, mothers clubs, and parent centers. Government publications do not report membership figures for these organizations. Most of the important urban areas in Chile also include a broad sample of the local chapters of a wide variety of occupational associations. These include labor unions and federations, public employee and health worker organizations, business and employers associations, and professional societies of teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, dentists, nurses, social workers, and other occupational group s. Membership in labor unions, which declined significantly under the military government, has been growing rapidly since the late 1980s, a change directly related to the transition to democracy. Affiliation with organizations recognized as unions in labor legislation was officially estimated in 1990 at 606,800, a 20 percent increase over 1989. That figure did not include individuals affiliated with public employee associations (including health workers). But these two groups usually have been closely tied to the labor movement through the national confederations of labor. Thus, about 19 percent of a total labor force of 4,459,600 was linked to unions or union-like associations in 1990. With the continuing increases in union affiliations, which are especially significant in rural areas, a conservative estimate is that the unionized population (in legal as well as de facto organizations) stood in 1992 at between 22 percent and 24 percent of the labor force. The most important union c onfederation, which encompasses the great majority of the nations unions and union-like organizations, is the United Labor Federation (Central ?nica de TrabajadoresCUT). CUT is the heir to a line of top labor confederations that can be traced back through various reorganizations and name changes to at least 1936, and perhaps to 1917. There are numerous business and employer associations in Chile. They collectively claim to speak for about 540,000 proprietors of businesses of all sizes. The most important business organization, the Business and Production Confederation, encompasses some of the very oldest ongoing associations in Chile: the National Agricultural Association, founded in 1838, groups the most important agricultural enterprises, includes large wholesale and retail commercial enterprises; the National Association of Mining, founded in 1883, affiliates the main private mining companies; the Industrial Development Association, founded in 1883, organizes the principal manufa cturing industries; the Association of Banks and Financial Institutions, founded in 1943, is the main banking-industry group; and the Chilean Construction Board, founded in 1951, organizes construction companies. Another important confederation of business groups is the Council of Production, Transport, and Commerce. In contrast to Coproco, this organization groups primarily medium-sized to small businesses, including many self-employed individuals who do not hire nonfamily members on a regular basis. Its main components are the Trade Union Confederation of Business Retailers and Small Industry of Chile, founded in 1938, and the Confederation of Truck Owners of Chile, founded in 1953. Professional societies are also well established. The largest ones, aside from the teachers organization noted previously, are those for lawyers, physicians, and engineers. Affiliation figures for most of the more than thirty professional societies were unavailable, but there are at least 100,000 membe rs in such associations aside from teachers. If these figures are added to those for membership in business groups and unions, it appears that about a third of the labor force is involved in occupationally based associations. The organized groups of Chilean society have long played an important role in the nations political life. The elections in some of themfor example, in major labor federations, among university students, or in the principal professional societies usually have been examined carefully for clues to the strength of the various national political parties. Most of the nations university and professional institute students belong to student federations. The various associations also make their views known to state or congressional officials when issues of policy that affect them are debated. Some associations traditionally have been identified with particular political parties. This was the case, to a greater or lesser extent, with Masons, fire fighters, teachers feder ations, and the Radical Party; union confederations and the parties of the left; employer associations and the parties of the right; the Roman Catholic Church, as well as its related organizations with the Conservative Party; and, in recent decades, the Christian Democratic Party. Many of the most militant party members have also been active in social organizations. In addition, party headquarters in local communities often have served as meeting places for all kinds of activities. The Radical clubs of small towns in the central south are especially active, often sponsoring sports clubs as well as the formation of fire departments. Social organizations did not fare well under the military government. Those that were perceived to be linked, however loosely, to the parties of the left were subjected to sometimes severe repressive measures. This was particularly the case with labor unions, whose activities were suspended for more than six years. They were only permitted to reorganize u nder new legislation beginning in 1979. Moreover, most associations, including those of business groups, were hardly ever consulted on policy matters, and, in the absence of normal democratic channels for exerting influence, they found their opinions and petitions falling on deaf ears. Eventually, the most prominent social organizations joined in voicing their discontent with the military government through what was called the Assembly of Civility (Asamblea de la Civilidad), and their efforts contributed to the defeat of President Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (1973-90) in the 1988 plebiscite. The only organizations that thrived under the military government were the womens aid and mothers clubs, which were supported by government largesse and headed at the national level by Pinochets wife, Luc?a Hiriart. With the return to democracy, social organizations recovered the ability to pressure Congress and the national government. The new government opted for explicit solicitation of the opini ons of important interest associations on some of the policies it was considering. It also fostered negotiations between top labor and business leaders over issues such as labor law reforms, minimum wage and pension levels, and overall wage increases for public employees. These negotiations led to several national agreements between state officials and business and labor leaders, thereby inaugurating a new form of top-level bargaining previously unknown in Chile. Political Issues

Zara Fast fashion from Savvy Systems

Introduction Strategic management is defined as the set of managerial decisions and actions that determine the performance of the organization in the long run (Robert, 2002, p. 76). It includes scanning the internal and external environment, strategy formulation, and strategy implementation.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Zara: Fast fashion from Savvy Systems specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is carried out through evaluation of the firm’s internal environment and the external factors. These factors contribute in the determination of the internal strengths and weaknesses as well as the opportunities and threats in the external environment (Frederick, 2001, p. 49). This report presents the Zara’s strategic plan that will play a key role in ensuring that its strategic growth ambitions are achieved. Vision, Mission and corporate objectives A corporation’s vision is a statement that presents the end picture of how it visualizes itself when all its targets have been achieved (Richard Colin, 2004, p. 23). Zara fashion Vision is â€Å"to be the world leading fashion company that will enjoy undisputed market share among all the nations of the world† An organization’s mission shows its reason for existence. Zara’s mission is â€Å"To be the preferred organization among the consumers of fashion products and to provide affordable yet high quality fashion products†. Objectives indicate what results are to be achieved and when (Maurice, 1995, p. 48). Objectives are usually stated as action verbs. Zara’s objectives are to achieve a gross margin of at least 50% of the cost of sales, to increase market presence and brand visibility in all countries of the world, to use environmental friendly production methods, and to maintain high standards of professionalism and ethical practices in all its operations. Situational analysis In the last decade, Z ara has grown to become one of the best fashion designers and retailers in the world. However, due to the recent global economic crisis, Zara was adversely affected with revenues reaching all time lows. The situation has been worsened by new market entrants that have brought stiff competition. This has compelled the organization to revisit its strategy so as to continue thriving. Environmental analysis It is a strategic management action that involves scanning of both the internal and external environment.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Internal analysis is aimed at identifying the resources within the organization that can be used to formulate organizational strategy to achieve competitive excellence (Comeford Callaghan, 2011, p. 63). External environment analysis presents the opportunities that a firm may have as well as the threats it may be facing (Richard Colin, 200 4, p. 52). The use of PESTLE analysis by Zara indicates various external factors. An analysis of Social/Political environment indicates that the company faces major social and political barriers in some countries where religious practices are strict. These countries have religious laws that dictate dressing code hence cut the fashion market. This is a threat to Zara’s expansion plan since it cannot penetrate these markets. Analyses of Economic factors also reveal that most of the people are still recovering from the global financial crisis that reduced the individuals’ propensity to consume because of the high costs of living. Analyses of the technological factors reveal that the company has a huge opportunity of increasing sales through internet such as the use of social media marketing such as face-book and twitter. Industry Analysis Carrying out industry analysis ensures that the researcher is aware of the prevailing market conditions and industry practices. The fas hion industry has been saturated with many substandard fashion products. This has dealt a blow to genuine fashion retailers since their products are always copied and sold at a lower price per unit. Some countries such as China do not have copyright laws. This has led to companies from such countries enjoying competitive advantage over Zara since they do not invest in research and development. This costs the company a lot of revenues since its products are easily copied, reproduced, and sold at lower prices. Zara’s internal analysis Zara has maintained a relatively amiable internal environment that has enabled it to gain a competitive advantage over the other firms. The use of resource based view as a management tool of internal analysis reveals that the company prides in various resources that help it stand out from others (Robert, 2002, p. 52). The company’s physical resources include human personnel who are very competent. The company’s human resource has bee n useful in innovation and research of new fashion products and improvement of the existing ones. The firm also enjoys distinctive capabilities since it has an invested a lot of resources in research and development. This gives it a competitive edge over other industry players.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Zara: Fast fashion from Savvy Systems specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Summary of the current Situation Analysis A study of the situation analysis reveals several positive and negative factors that are available in the internal and external environment. The internal environment of the company presents resources that can be used to formulate strategy which would help the company to achieve competitive advantage (Barney, 1991, p. 36). This would be done through the resources which provide the company with distinctive capabilities and key competencies (Henk, 1999, p. 51). The company prides itself in having t op fashion designers, innovative personnel and competent and professional employees. This helps it maintain high levels of efficiency thus low production costs. The main negative factor affecting Zara is the copying and subsequent sale of substandard products by the competitors. This act reduces their cost of production since research and development costs are excluded from the cost of production. These substandard products then retail at cheaper prices thus offering stiff competition to Zara’s original and genuine products. This is a major threat to the company’s profitability. Strategic Options and Choices Strategies form a comprehensive master plan of how the company will achieve its objectives (Elspeth Peter, 2002, p. 23). There are three types of strategies that Zara can adopt; corporate, Business, and functional strategy (Michael Charlotte, 2003, p. 41). Corporate strategy is meant to help the company in the overall direction. This strategy can therefore be ach ieved through expanding to specific countries first and then slowly moving to harsher markets. The business strategies occur at the product level and emphasize on the improvement of the competitive position of the company (Jerry, 2003, p. 42). This can be achieved through product design and innovations. Functional strategy deals with functional areas and aims at achieving unit objectives. To achieve this, the company may nurture and develop the distinctive capabilities that will help it stand out from the rest of the competitors. Implementation issues The most important stage in strategic management is strategy implementation (Robert, 2002, p. 198). Employees may object to the implementation of the new strategy due to various factors. Resources may also be insufficient to implement planned actions that require cash outlays. The processes of implementation and change are also tedious and thus hinder cooperation by the employees. Proper communication by the top management should be do ne to all the employees. This would ensure that each and every member of the organization owns up to the actions decided upon.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion Strategic management has become an important management area in the modern day world. Organizations should therefore keep on looking for new ways of doing business so that they may not only survive but also thrive the in the current day business environment. References Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management , 99-120. Comeford, R., Callaghan, d. (2011). Environmental, industry, and internal analysis. London: Prentice Hall. Elspeth, J. M., Peter, R. R. (2002). fast Forward: Organizational Change in a 100 Days. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Frederick, B. (2001). Executive Strategy: Strategic Management and Information Technology. New York: John Wiley Sons. Henk, W. V. (1999). Building the Flexible Firm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jerry, N. L. (2003). Competing in The Information Age: Align in the Sand. London: Oxfor University Press. Maurice, E. (1995). Electronic Technology, Corporate Strategy, and World T ransformation. New York: Quorum Books. Michael, B., Charlotte, B. (2003). Big in Asia: 25 Strategies for Business Success. London: Palgrave MacMillan. Richard, M. W., Colin, G. (2004). Strategic Marketing Management: Planning, Implementation and Control. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Robert, H. L. (2002). Strategic Operations Management: The New Competitive Advantage. London: Routledge. This report on Zara: Fast fashion from Savvy Systems was written and submitted by user Azaria A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Discrimination and Affirmative Action

The Importance Of Tourism And Hospitality Employment Tourism Essay Example

The Importance Of Tourism And Hospitality Employment Tourism Essay Example The Importance Of Tourism And Hospitality Employment Tourism Essay The Importance Of Tourism And Hospitality Employment Tourism Essay The importance of touristry and cordial reception employment in both developed and developing states is attested to by the World Travel and Tourism Council ( WTTC ) , who suggest that travel- and tourism-related activities account for over 230 million occupations, or 8.7 per cent of occupations worldwide ( WTTC, 2006 ) . However, whilst the measure of occupations is unquestionable, the quality of many of these occupations is of great concern to faculty members and policy-makers likewise. Despite the rhetoric of policy-makers and concern leaders that people are the industry s most of import plus, many remain unconvinced that such a position is borne out by empirical grounds. For illustration, Douglas Coupland, the noteworthy cultural observer, has for many captured the Zeitgeist when he talks pejoratively of McJob which he describes as, Alow-pay, low-prestige, low-dignity, low-benefit, no-future occupation in the service sector. Frequently considered a fulfilling calling pick by peo ple who have neer held one ( Coupland, 1993: 5 ; and see besides Lindsay and McQuaid, 2004 ) . MacDonald and Sirianni ( 1996 ) acknowledge the challenges of life and working in a service society which, harmonizing to them, is characterized by two sorts of service occupations: big Numberss of low-skill, low-pay occupations and a smaller figure of high-skill, high-income occupations, with few occupations being in the center of these two extremes. Such a state of affairs leads labour analysts to inquire what sorts of occupations are being produced and who is make fulling them. This point is besides true for the touristry and cordial reception industry and it is of import at the beginning of this book to add a caution about the generalizability ( or otherwise ) of the conditions of touristry and cordial reception employment worldwide. To make so it will critically reexamine some of the jobs which lead many to qualify touristry and cordial reception employment as by and large unrewardin g and unsympathetic, whilst besides sing illustrations of good pattern, of import policy responses and theoretical accounts of HRM which may offer cause for greater optimism in the manner people are managed within the touristry and cordial reception industry. What are the touristry and cordial reception industries? Many faculty members, industrialists and policy-makers have attempted to specify the nature of the touristry industry and the topographic point of the cordial reception sub-sector withinthis broader conceptualisation yet there is still no 1 normally accepted definition.Hence, there are built-in jobs seeking to specify what is a big and diverse sector, which means many of the activities may overlap, and could be described as embracing touristry and cordial reception. For illustration, Lucas ( 2004 ) in her recent work on employment dealingss in the cordial reception and touristry industries chose to speak in wide footings about the Hotel, Catering and Tourism Sector ( HCTS ) . This word picture of the HCTS recognizes that, in world, many occupations in cordial reception and touristry, share common properties and are associated with both cordial reception and touristry activities ( p. 4 ) . Clearly, so, we should acknowledge the potency for a deficiency of preciseness in depicting t he touristry and cordial reception industries. In an effort to avoid excessively much impreciseness and, at the same clip, capture the diverseness of the sector it uses the model offered by Peoples 1st, which is the Sector Skills Council ( SSC ) for the cordial reception, leisure, travel and touristry sector, to represent the wide scope of activities that may be seen in the HCTS. The ground for utilizing People 1st is that SSCs are the government-licensed organic structures in the UK responsible for bettering accomplishments within the industry. SSCs are employer led and amongst other things aim to be the voice of industry on accomplishments affairs and promote best pattern attacks to employment ( and see Chapter 7 for the function of Peoples 1st in bettering accomplishments and preparation in cordial reception, leisure, travel and touristry ) . Therefore, Peoples 1stsuggest that the sector as a whole is made up of 14 sub-sectors ( Peoples 1st, 2006 ) : a-? hotels ; a-? eating houses, tourer services ; a-? visitant attractive forces ; a-? young person inns ; a-? vacation Parkss ; a-? self-catering adjustment ; a-? cordial reception services HRM IN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY HRM HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INDUSTRIES aˆ? Attract an effectual work force Hour planning/labour markets Recruitment and choice aˆ? Maintain an effectual work force Wagess and public assistance Labor dealingss ( e.g. the function of trade brotherhoods ) Grudge and disciplinary processs aˆ? Develop an effectual work force Training and development Appraisal Hotel industry The hotel in Hoque s ( 2000 ) research, which is termed the HRM quality foil hotel, employed 140 staff and was portion of a big international concatenation. In relation to their attack to HRM a figure of patterns were outstanding in the hotel. Recruitment and choice emphasized the demand for employees to hold an aptitude for client attention, although this tended to be spotted at interview instead than through psychometric or behavioral trials. The hotel used extended initiation programmes to decrease the potency of employee turnover. The usage of cross-functional squads aimed to bring forth cooperation and squad edifice and staff were encouraged to see the hotel as a unit instead than a aggregation of distinct maps. Allied to this extended multi-skilling and crossfunctionalflexibility was encouraged, this cross-exposure allowed staff to see a figure of the other parts of the hotel. There was extended decentalisation, which sought to promote responsible liberty, for illustration th rough a well-understood authorization strategy operating in the hotel. Consultation via a representative advisory commission allowed employees to voice their positions on the running of the hotel. Further to this audience the hotel besides operated an one-year attitude study. Employees were appraised on a annual footing. The assessment system was used for sequence planning and the hotel was besides working towards associating assessment with a merit-based wage system. Employees were besides encouraged by a strong internal labor market which promoted from within, whenever possible. Finally, throughout the hotel there was an paramount accent on quality and the demand to offer outstanding client service . HARD AND SOFT HRM Equally good as supplying the concise definition utilized above, Storey ( 1987 ) besides provided one of the earliest and most abiding efforts to acknowledge different attacks to HRM. These different attacks are captured by the thought of difficult and soft HRM, each of which are now briefly described. The difficult version is seen to be an instrumental and economically rational attack to HRM. In this position people direction schemes are driven by strategic considerations to derive competitory advantage, maximising control while accomplishing the lowest possible labor cost. This attack is quantitative and calculating and labor is a commodity/resource, the same as any other. The focal point is on HRM. On the other manus the soft version is seen to be much moreabout following a humanistic and developmental attack to HRM. As a consequence anorganization s people direction attack is likely to be more consensual and based on a high degree of managerial committedness to employees, which i s intended to take to common high committedness from employees, high trust, high productiveness and so on. Employees are seen as being proactive, capable of being developed and worthy of trust and coaction. This attack focuses on HRM.What difficult and soft attacks to HRM point to is that employers will change their people direction schemes. BEST FIT AND BEST HRM PRACTICES Boxall and Purcell ( 2000 ) suggest that efforts to understand the manner in which organisations approach the direction of their HR can be seen with respect towhether they aim for best tantrum or best pattern . Best tantrum One of the earliest and most influential efforts to develop a theoretical account that recognized the demand for a tantrum between the competitory scheme and HRM was that offered by Schuler and Jackson ( 1987 ) . Schuler and Jackson developed a series of typologies of needed function behaviors that enabled the nexus between competitory scheme and HRM patterns to be made. The type of needful function behaviors within Schuler and Jackson s theoretical account was contingent on the overall schemes that an organisation could follow to seek competitory advantage and the HRM approached adopted to prolong this. First, there is an invention scheme, where organisations seek to develop merchandises or services that are different from rivals, such that the focal point here is on companies offering something new and different. Organizations following this attack seek to develop an environment where invention is allowed to boom. Resultantly, the employee needed function behavior in such a scenario is characterized by things like a willingness to digest ambiguity and capriciousness, the demand to be originative and hazard pickings. Given these features the type of HRM scheme fluxing from this attack is based on holding a big figure of extremely skilled persons who are likely to bask high degrees of liberty. Second, is the quality sweetening scheme wherein houses seek to derive competitory advantage by heightening the merchandise and/or service quality. The attack one time once more points to certain HRM patterns to back up a total-quality attack. These patterns include the encouragement of feedbac k systems, teamwork, decision-making and duty being an built-in portion of an employee s occupation description and flexible occupation categorizations. The purpose of these patterns is to make needed employee behaviors such as co-operative, mutualist behavior and committedness to the ends of the organisation. Last, the cost decrease scheme sees houses trying to derive competitory advantage by taking to be the lowest-cost manufacturer within a peculiar market section. . Best pattern Whilst statements for best tantrum advocator a close tantrum between competitory schemes and HRM, those in favor of best pattern attacks to HRM suggest that there is a cosmopolitan one best manner to pull off people. By following a best pattern attack it is argued that organisations will see enhanced committedness from employees taking to improved organisational public presentation, higher degrees of service quality and finally additions in productiveness and profitableness, Normally couched in footings of bundles , the HRM patterns that are offered in support of a high committedness and public presentation theoretical account are by and large reasonably consistent. For illustration, Redman and Matthews ( 1998 ) outline a scope of HR patterns which are suggested as being of import to organisational schemes aimed at procuring high-quality service: a-? Recruitment and choice: Recruiting and choosing staff with the right attitudinal and behavioral features. A scope of appraisals in the choice procedure should be utilized to measure the work values, personality, interpersonal accomplishments and problem-solving abilities of possible employees to measure their service orientation . a-? Retention: The demand to avoid the development of a turnover civilization , which may of class be peculiarly prevailing in touristry and cordial reception. For illustration, the usage of retention fillips to act upon employees to remain. a-? Teamwork: The usage of semi-autonomous, cross-process and multi-functional squads. a-? Training and development: The demand to fit operative degree staff with squad working and interpersonal accomplishments to develop their service orientation and directors with a new leading manner which encourages a move to a more facilitative and training manner of managing. a-? Appraisal: Traveling off from traditional top down attacks to appraisal and back uping things such as client rating, equal reappraisal, team-based public presentation and the assessment of directors by subsidiaries. By and large, all of these public presentation assessment systems should concentrate on the quality ends of the organisation and the behavior of employees needed to prolong these. a-? Rewarding quality: A demand for a much more originative system of wagess and in peculiar the demand to payment systems that reward employees for achieving quality ends. a-? Job security: Promises of occupation security are seen as an indispensable constituent of any overall quality attack. a-? Employee engagement and employee dealingss: By seeking greater engagement from employees the accent is on offering liberty, creativeness, co-operation and self-denial in work procedures. The usage of educative and participative mechanisms, such as squad briefings and quality circles are allied to alterations in the organisation of work which support an empowered environment. In simple footings best pattern is likely to imply efforts to heighten the accomplishments base of employees through HR activities such as selective staffing, comprehensive preparation and wide developmental attempts like occupation rotary motion. CHALLENGES FACED BY HR IN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY By and large touristry and cordial reception has frequently struggled with negative perceptual experiences about employment patterns and conditions and this perceptual experience has frequently been matched by the world. Keep and Mayhew ( 1999 ) for illustration in their reappraisal of the accomplishments issue in the touristry and cordial reception industry suggest the industry has a figure of forces jobs, including: a-? by and large low rewards, unless skill deficits act to counter this ( e.g. chefs ) ; a-? unsocial hours and displacement forms that are non household friendly ; a-? overrepresentation of adult females and cultural minorities in low-level operative places, with better paid, higher position and more skilled occupations filled by work forces, indicating to undeveloped equal chances policies in the sector ; a-? hapless or non-existent calling constructions and usage of casualized seasonal employment ; a-? over trust on informal enlisting methods ; a-? deficiency of grounds of good pattern personnel/HRM patterns ; a-? small or no trade brotherhood presence ; a-? high degrees of labour turnover ; a-? troubles in enlisting and keeping of employees. Acknowledging this world of hapless employment patterns, Riley et Al. ( 2000 ) argue that economic science is the cardinal finding factor for HRM policies and patterns in touristry and cordial reception. Of class this point is likely to be true of any industry, but as Riley et Al. point out it carries a peculiar resonance in touristry and cordial reception, due to the nature of the sector. That is non to state that organisations and directors in the industry are non good cognizant of new managerial thought on HRM. However, they besides find themselves wrestling with traditional jobs , which are underpinned by fundamental labour economic jussive moods . Importantly, these jobs limit managerial actions and this leads Riley et Al. to reason the behavior of directors is determined by the constructions and signifiers under which they live. This inability by industry to acknowledge the most blazing of issues is long standing and can besides be seen in relation to things like a grade of i ll will and resistance from the employers associations in the industry, such as the British Hospitality Association ( BHA ) , to governmental enterprises such as the lower limit pay and working clip directing. The BHA still remains unsure of the benefits of such enterprises, despite support from others who argue these enterprises are likely to hold a potentially positive impact on the industry. Given the above treatment it is unsurprising to see a long history of support for the proposition that touristry and cordial reception remains a hapless employing sector. From Orwell s Down and Out in Paris and London in the 1930s to recent work by the likes of Price ( 1994 ) , Kelliher and Perrett ( 2001 ) , Kelliher and Johnson ( 1997 ) and McGunnigle and Jameson ( 2000 ) , the dominant paradigm has tended to emphasize the negative facets of working in the sector. For illustration, McGunnigle and Jameson surveyed a selected figure of hotels from the top 50 hotel groups ranked by ownership of sleeping room stock, which were considered to be most likely to exhibit good pattern HRM. Despite this they concluded, This survey suggests that there is small acceptance of HRM doctrine in corporately owned hotels in the UK sample aˆÂ ¦ [ and cordial reception ] aˆÂ ¦ has a long manner to travel before it can claim that it is promoting a civilization of committedness . Similarly, K elliher and Perrett ( 2001 ) , pulling explicitly on Schuler and Jackson s typology, develop a instance survey analysis of a designer eating house . Such a eating house might be though of as potentially developing a more sophisticated attack to HRM as they sought to distinguish themselves from concatenation constitutions such as Hard Rock Cafe and TGI Friday s. However, although the eating house had moved to a more sophisticated attack to HRM in countries like planning, preparation and development and assessment, and apparently sought an innovation scheme, there was small existent grounds that human resources were seen as a beginning of competitory advantage BEST PRACTICE IN TOURISM ANDHOSPITALITY Some of the most of import work to emerge in recent old ages on the inquiry of the extent of good pattern in the HCTS is the work of Hoque ( 2000 ) . Based on his work on the hotel sector, he argues that statements which portray the industry as backward and unstrategic are now outdated, at least where larger hotel constitutions are concerned. Indeed, he suggests that it is possibly clip research workers stopped foregrounding the illustration of bad direction and branding the industry as under-developed or backward, and started placing attacks to hotel direction capable of bring forthing high public presentation ( 2000: 154 ) . The research conducted by Hoque consists of a questionnaire-based study of 232 hotels and a figure of follow-up interviews conducted in targeted hotels, based on the consequences of the study. Based on this research he discusses three key issues. First, the extent to which hotels have experimented with new attacks to HRM. Second, the factors that influence HRM decision-making and whether these factors are any different in the hotel industry compared to elsewhere. Finally, he reviewed the relationship between HRM and public presentation in the hotel industry. Hoque is able to claim that, compared to a sample of over 300 greenfield-site fabrication constitutions, the hotels in his sample where using a figure of patterns that were really similar to outdo pattern. Indeed, in exemplifying the mode in which academic theoretical accounts can, in world, overlap it is besides deserving observing that there is important convergence between Schuler and Jackson s quality sweetening and invention attacks with much of the best pattern attacks. Hoque s work remains utile in offering a description of organisational patterns that support a professional, high-quality attack to service. That said, there are a figure of unfavorable judgments that can be levelled at the research ( Nickson and Wood, 2000 ) . As Hoque himself recognizes his sample of hotels is big by industry criterions, averaging 125 employees per unit compared to an industry standard of 81 per centof constitutions using fewer than 25 people, and therefore as Hoque ( 2000: 51 ) himself recognizes patently unrepresentative of the industry as a whole . Furthermore his trust on city-centre hotels with a high proportion of corporate clients is every bit unrepresentative. Last, the trust on managerial voices in his research, to the exclusion of those on the having terminal of many of the initiativesdescribed ( i.e. employees ) , may be considered an of import skip. To be just, Hoque s sole trust on managerial voices is non alone and is shared by much of the literature on HRM. The cardinal point emerging from the work of the likes of Redman and Matthews and Hoque is what good pattern HRM is likely to look like in the touristry and cordial reception industry.

How police officers might be held criminally liable for their Essay

How police officers might be held criminally liable for their misconduct - Essay Example Sometimes they take bribe; sometimes their personal enmities and sometimes they may be threatened by the criminals. (Posner, 1981) One of the historical examples of such an incidence is the Guildford Pub Bombings (England). These bombings were planned by Irish Republican Army (IRA). On Oct 5, 1947 two bombs detonated at two pubs (Horse & Groom Pub and Seven Stars Pub) in Guildford, England. These pubs were targeted as they were famous for British Army personnel being stationed at Pirbright (a village near Surrey, England). The Metropolitan Police was pressurized to cope with the situation. They apprehended four people (three men and a woman). These people are popularly known as the â€Å"Guildford Four†. These were: Gerry Conlon, Paul Hill, Patrick Armstrong, and Carole Richardson. These people were erroneously convicted by torture by the Metropolitan Police. They served prison for about fifteen years. They appealed many times to High Court ad at last their convictions were overturned, when it was proved that their confessions were obtained by torture. (Greenfield and Osborn,

Two or More Sample Hypothesis Testing Paper Essay

Two or More Sample Hypothesis Testing Paper - Essay Example In this case, we want to test whether the average salary of a person who has been to school for less than 16 years in less than that of another who spend more than 16 years in school. In hypothesis testing, there is the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the assumed truth while the alternative is what the researcher/analyst will settle for if the assumed truth (null hypothesis) if found to be false. The hypothesis is below. A sample is used instead of using the whole population to draw inferences about the population since it is cheap, it takes a shorter while and has scope like a complete observation of the whole population. In this case, the People who spend less than 16 years in education were 79 while those who had spend more than 16 years in education were 21. Thus, a total of 100 were selected for this study. The people who spend less than 16 years are denoted by 1 while those who spend more than 16 years are denoted by 2. This is a single tailed test to the left, the average salary for those who have been in education for less than 16 years is 26,998.68 with a standard deviation of 13,305.31. The average salary for those who have been in education for more than 16 years is 45,259.52 with a standard deviation of 21,322.18. For those who spent less than 16 years, the salary range was 72,604 with a minimum of 10,997 and a maximum of 83,601 while those with more than 16 years, the range was 73,690 and a minimum of 9,879 and a maximum of 83,569. The maximum and minimum of both less than and more than 16 years are almost he same. From the above results, it is evident that the calculated value for Z lies in the critical region; is not in the acceptance region but in the rejection region as shown above. The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative accepted. We conclude that, the average salary for those who have been in education for less than 16 years is less than the

MGT501 - Mgmt. and Org. Behavior session long project 3 (learning Essay

MGT501 - Mgmt. and Org. Behavior session long project 3 (learning styles.) - Essay Example This assessment took me by surprise and I must say it was a pleasant surprise. It’s good to know your own style of learning rather than assuming you are good in one style whereas that is not really your style. I think this assessment is a complete clear picture of me and my style and is clearly my actual style of learning. I do tend to be more productive when am verbal or social and also to a great extent Aural. These are definite strengths and will prove to be very helpful in a workplace or organization. The main reasons being, a) at a workplace training is mostly in groups rather than one on one, b) being verbal is helpful as it allows good expression of self and c) together they form a strong mix and allow for bettered performance. In any work place it is essential to be able to think in a logical manner and be able to grasp things in a group discussion. Hence I believe that the ability to learn in social as well as verbal manner is quite an effective combination and can be very useful in the work environment. Based on the results I do not think I need to improve myself in any area considering this completely in a managerial sense. I think the combination of being verbal and social will prove to make a dynamic combination in an organization. However to ensure that my overall competence is improved, I will work on learning all styles as this will be helpful to understand the others within the organization. I feel this tool is one of the best assessments for one and allows people to learn about their own learning styles in an effective manner. The assessment is to a great extent accurate and is very helpful when a person is unaware of their learning style. Also this allows the individuals to learn their lacking qualities and work on self improvement of these techniques and skills. Overall the assessment is very interesting, motivating and very

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Private branch exchange system (PBXs) operates as a connection within private organizations usually a business. Because they incorporate telephones, the general term extension is used to refer to any end point on the branch. The PBX handles calls between these extensions. The primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone services. The private branch exchange (PBX) provides internal station-to-station communications for a well-defined set of users. Three distinct generations of private branch exchanges have appeared. In the first generation (1900-1930), a human operator manually set up calls. Second-generation private branch exchanges (mid-1930s to mid-1970s) used mechanical relays to establish the call path. The third generation of private branch exchanges is the stored-program microprocessor-controlled system. Introduced in the mid-1970s, these systems use computer instructions to perform th e call set-up and tear-down. The third-generation private branch exchange is physically much smaller than electromechanical models, uses less power, and generates less heat.(Brooks, 1999) In this project, the design of a 4 line telephone systems with full signaling and switching functions similar to those of the central office systems was embarked upon. Dial tone, busy tone, and ring tone are provided during call process. Switching employs integrated circuit (IC) matrix switches on four buses. Thus, this system is expandable to 8 lines (4 pairs) if more hardware is added. This system is switching on the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing signal. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The major problems this project intends to deal with are: Cut down cost of internal calls made within a company. Eliminate the need for a central telephone company to help you monitor your internal calls. Eliminate Stress of notification of telephone company each time you need a new extension and thereby reducing cost. Ensure security of your internal calls which otherwise can be tapped by company operating it. Eliminate the need for a manual switchboard and subsequently an operator to connect the calls. Reduce man-hours lost through staff walking about in an office in order to pass information to each other. 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 4 line private exchange box that is able to create connection between four different telephone lines internally without having to connect to an external or trunk line. The objectives include: Establishing connections between the telephone sets of any two users. (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice signals between the users) Creating an easy means of communication in an office without getting to spend money for their internal calls. To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections. To make sure the connection remains in place as long as it last, by keeping its resources. To properly end the connection when a user hangs up. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The ability or concept of providing an easy and less expensive way of communication within a small office or organization without having to pay for your internal calls or having limits to the rate or length of calls within the office. Also it is not necessary to go from office to office when something is needed, information is to be passed; a call to a colleague saves stress of walking about. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The Private Exchange System in this project is limited to a four lines which means that internal calls can be made from only four nodes. As such, it is only suitable for very small organization. 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The review of existing and related works to source appropriate information on how to go about the implementation of the project will be carried out. Information shall be gathered from text books, magazines, journals, and World Wide Web to provide answers in relation to the study. Based on the review, the design and implementation of a four line private exchange box system shall be carried out. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY There are several factors that could contribute to the group not delving deeper into this project which could have resulted in a more comprehensive work. Constraints are unavoidable in any system, be it a natural system or a computer system. Due to the extensiveness of this project topic, limitations were encountered some of which include: Time constraint. Financial constraints. Inadequate facilities to work with. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF WORK In chapter one, the research topic is introduced, which is followed by the statement of problem after which the aims and objectives of the study are stated, significance of study, scope of study and research methodology are all identified. The second chapter gives us a view of the related works which have been done and how they are related to our work. The third chapter is about our design methodology and this emphasizes on how the whole private exchange system works and its components. The quality of the system is tested and documented in chapter four. Also in chapter four, an in-depth manual of the system functions and contents is given. A summary of all chapters, a conclusion is outlined in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 HISTORY OF PRIVATE EXCHANGE BOX In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make phone calls work in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of circuit switching; the subscriber would ask the operator to connect to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection between the two subscribers telephones for the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from tea pot lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators. Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of  ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscribers telephone line. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the answering cord) into the subscribers jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, number please? Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the ringing cord) into the called partys local jack and start the ri nging cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away. 2.1 PBX SYSTEM COMPONENTS PBX is a telephone exchange serving a single organization and having no means for connecting to a public telephone system it serves a user company which wants to have its own communication branch to save some money on internal calls. This is done by having the exchanging or switching of circuits done locally, inside the company. There are some important components which play a major role in the implementation of an effective PBX system. Some of the Component The PBXs internal switching network. Central processor unit (CPU) or computer inside the system, including memory. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings. 2.2 PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) There are essentially three different types of PBXs that could be deployed within an organization infrastructure. It is necessary to be certain of type in use, so as to be able to identify the essential numbers. There are currently three different PBX classes: Centrex; Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) and Megalink. 2.2.1 CENTREX Centrex is the easiest of the PBX types. This PBX, unlike other types is installed within the telephone companys Central Office (CO) and does not require dialing an extension code (normally 4 numeric characters) after having dialed the 7 to 10 digit number to connect a call to an individual. In a simplistic manner, it could be considered similar to the telephone used at home. It has an area code (NPA), an Exchange (NXX) and a Unique Number, (0000 to 9999) and does not require the dialling of another number after it in order to place a call. These numbers may be entered through a PAD. 2.2.2 Direct Inward Dialing(DID)/ Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) Unlike a Centrex, these types of PBXs is not installed within the telephone companys Central Office. Secondly, if a cut of the telephone wire occurs outside the building, individuals are still able to dial within it to talk to colleagues by simply dialing their extension number (normally a number between 0000 to 9999) lastly; this PBX is controlled via a computer interface at a control console. Since the PBX requires constant power to function, it may be necessary to hook it with generating plant, in the absence of power from electricity company. Direct Inward Dialing (DID) and Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) are simply features of an Automated PBX which require that you dial the companys general telephone number followed by the entry of the individuals extension number when prompted to do so. DIDs allow you direct dialing (seven digits) to locate an individual within an organizations PBX. It is a trunk phone number that must be entered into the PAD program and flagged as a PBX to ensure that the outgoing line(s) get priority. PBXs may be privately owned or telecommunication company owned. If PBX is programmable it is possible to assign specific trunk lines to specific numbers. These trunk line numbers may then be entered on PAD thus providing dial tone protection. 2.2.3 MEGALINKS The major difference between this and a Centrex PBX is that the exiting trunk lines from a building to the telephone company central office are comprised of fibre optic cables and not through twisted pair wiring. Another difference is that unlike a Centrex that is identified by its ten digit telephone number (NPA, NXX, and Unique), Megalinks are identified by a circuit ID number. This number may contain characters and may even resemble a telephone number, however, PAD does not allow for the entry of the circuit switch identifier. The reason is quite simple, fibre optic cabling circuits can handle far more traffic than twisted pair PBXs. 2.3 INTERFACE STANDARDS Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) the common two-wire interface used in most homes. This is cheap and effective, and allows almost any standard phone to be used as an extension. Proprietary the manufacturer has defined a protocol. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to their PBX, but the benefit is more visible information displayed and/or specific function buttons. DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include: Proprietary protocols if equipment from several manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard protocol is required. QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Standardised by British Telecom, this usually runs over E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP and IAX protocols are IP based solutions which can handle voice and multimedia (e.g. video) calls. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: Standard POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) lines the common two-wire interface used in most domestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller systems, and can suffer from not being able to detect incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call. ISDN the most common digital standard for fixed telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Basic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit capacity) versions. Most medium to large companies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 or E1 physical connections. RBS (Robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital circuits over a four-wire (T1) interface. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are supported by some network providers. Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX: Serial interface historically used to print every call record to a serial printer. Now an application connects via serial cable to this port. Network Port (Listen mode) where an external application connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX then starts streaming information down to the application. Network Port (Server mode) The PBX connects to another application or buffer. File The PBX generates a file containing the call records from the PBX. The call records from the PBX are called SMDR, CDR, or CIL.   (Micheal, 1999) 2.4 TELEPHONE Telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created.   Although most people take it completely for granted, the telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created. To talk to someone, just pick up the phone and dial a few digits; connection will be established with the person and a two-way conversation can take place. It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry . Advances in electronics have allowed th e introduction of a number of smart features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. The figure 2.1 shows the major components that makes up a telephone set. 2.5 HOW TELEPHONE WORKS When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the telephone of the person he is talking to. A telephone has two main parts: (1) the transmitter and (2) the receiver.The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive electric ear. It lies behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has 14 eardrum. The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying tones of the speakers voice.   Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely. This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less current flows through the grains. Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. The Receiver serves as an electric mouth. Like a human voice, it has vocal cords. The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus, the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the diaphragm to vibrate according to the speakers speech pattern. As the diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker. (www.howstuffworks.com) 2.6 THE RINGER Simply speaking this is a device that alerts you to an incoming call. It may be a bell, light, or warbling tone.  Ã‚   The ringing signal is in an AC wave form.   Although the common frequency used can be any frequency between 15 and 68 Hz.   Most of the world uses frequencies   between   20 and 40 Hz.  Ã‚   The voltage at the subscribers end depends upon loop length and number   of   ringers attached to the line; it could be between 40 and 150 Volts. The ringing cadence (the timing of ringing to pause), varies from company to company.   In the United States the cadence is normally 2 seconds of ringing to 4 seconds of pause. An unanswered phone in the United States will keep ringing until the caller hangs up.   But in some countries, the ringing will time out if the call is not answered. The   most   common   ringing   device is   the   gong   ringer; a solenoid   coil   with a clapper that strikes either a single or double bell. A gong ringer is the loudest signaling device that is solely phone-line powered. Modern telephones tend to use warbling ringers, which are usually ICs powered by the rectified ringing signal.   The audio transducer is a small   loudspeaker via a transformer. Ringers are isolated from the DC of the phone line by a capacitor. Gong ringers in the United States use a 0.47 uF capacitor.   Warbling ringers in the United States generally use a 1.0 uF capacitor.   Telephone companies in other   parts   of   the world   use   capacitors   between   0.2   and   2.0   uF.  Ã‚   The  Ã‚   paper capacitors of the past have been replaced almost exclusively with capacitors made of Mylar film.   Their voltage rating is always 50 Volts.   The capacitor and ringer coil, or Zeners in a warbling ringer, constitute a resonant circuit. When phone is hung up (on hook) the ringer is across the line; and it has merely silenced the transducer, not removed the circuit from the line. When the telephone company uses the ringer to test the line, it   sends   a   low-voltage, low frequency   signal   down   the   line (usually   2 Volts at 10 Hz) to test for continuity. The company compares result with the expected signals of the line.   This is how it can tell whether an added equipment is on the line. If your telephone has had its ringer disconnected, the telephone company cannot detect its presen ce on the line. Because there is only a certain amount of current available to   drive ringers, if ringers are added to phone lines indiscriminately, a point will be reached at which either all ringers will cease to ring, some will cease to ring, or some ringers will ring   weakly. A normal ringer is defined as   a   standard gong   ringer   as   supplied   in   a   phone   company   standard   desk telephone; Value given to this ringer   is   Ringer   Equivalence Number   (REN)   1. It can be as high as 3.2, which means that device consumes the equivalent   power   of   3.2 standard ringers, or 0.0, which means it consumes no current when subjected   to   a   ringing   signal.   If   there is a problem with ringing, it could be that the REN is greater than 5, disconnecting ringers until REN is at 5 or below will usually solve the problem. Other countries have various ways of expressing   REN,   and some   systems   will handle no more th an three of   their   standard ringers.   But whatever the system, if an extra equipment was added and the   phones   stop ringing, or the phone answering   machine   wont pick   up   calls,   the solution is disconnect   ringers   until   the problem   is resolved. Warbling ringers tend to draw less current than   gong   ringers, so changing from gong   ringers   to   warbling ringers may help spread the sound better. Frequency response is the second criterion by which a ringer is described. Because a ringer is supposed to respond to AC waveforms,   it will tend to respond to transients (such as switching transients) when the phone is hung up, or when the rotary dial is used on   an extension phone.   This is called bell tap in the United States; in other   countries,   its often called   bell   tinkle.  Ã‚   While European and   Asian phones tend to bell tap, or   tinkle,   United States ringers that bell tap are considered defective. The bell tap   is   designed out of gong ringers and fine   tuned   with   bias springs.  Ã‚   Warbling   ringers   for use in the   United   States   are designed   not   to respond to short transients;   this   is   usually accomplished   by   rectifying the AC and filtering   it   before   it powers the IC,   then not switching on the output stage unless the voltage lasts long enough to charge a second capacitor.(Roberts, 2006) 2.7 HOOK SWITCH This is a lever that is depressed when the handset is resting in its cradle. It is a two-wire to four-wire converter that provides conversion between the four-wire handset and the two-wire local loop. There are two stages, which are off   hook and on hook Off hook: The state of a telephone line that allows dialing and transmission but prohibits incoming calls from being answered. The phone is off-hook when the handset is removed from the base unit of a stationary phone or press Talk on a portable phone. The term stems from the days when the handset was lifted off an actual hook. When the handset was removed, a spring caused contacts to press together, closing the circuit from the telephone to the switchboard. On hook: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone reciever, i.e., separate earpiec, on a swithch hook. The weigth of the recieved depresses the sping leaded switch hook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Roberts, 2006) 2.8 THE DIAL There are two types of dials in use around the world. The most common one is called pulse, loop disconnect, or rotary; the oldest form of dialing, its been in use since the 1920s. The other dialing   method,   is called Touch-tone, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency   (DTMF) Pulse dialing   is traditionally accomplished with   a   rotary dial,   which is a speed governed wheel with a cam that opens   and closes a switch in series with the phone and the line.   It works by   actually   disconnecting   or hanging   up   the   telephone   at specific intervals.   The United States standard is one disconnect per  Ã‚   digit,  Ã‚   so if a   1, is dailled, the telephone   is disconnected once. To dial a seven means that it will be   disconnected seven times; and dialling a zero means that it will hang up ten times. Some countries invert the system so 1 causes ten disconnects   and 0,   one disconnect.   Some add a digit so that dialing a 5 would cause six disconnects and 0, eleven disconnects.   There are even some systems in which dialing 0 results in one   disconnect,   and all   other digits are plus one, making a 5 cause six   disconnects and 9, ten disconnects. Although most exchanges are quite happy with rates of 6   to 15   Pulses Per Second (PPS), the phone company accepted   standard is   8   to   10 PPS.   Some modern digital exchanges, free   of   the mechanical   inertia problems of older systems, will accept a   PPS rate as high as 20. Besides   the PPS rate, the dialing pulses have a   make/break ratio,   usually   described as a percentage, but   sometimes   as   a straight   ratio.   The North American standard is 60/40   percent; most of Europe accepts a standard of 63/37 percent.   This is the pulse measured at the telephone, not at the exchange, where   its somewhat   different, having traveled through the phone line   with its   distributed   resistance, capacitance,   and   inductance.  Ã‚   In practice, the   make/break   ratio does not   seem   to   affect   the performance of the dial when attached to a normal loop.   However,each pulse is a switch connect and disconnect across   a complex   impedance, so the switching transient often reaches   300 Volts. Usually, a safe practice is not to have fingers   across   the   line   when dialing. Most pulse dialing phones produced today use a CMOS IC and a keyboard.   Instead of pushing finger round in circles, then removing finger and waiting for the dial to return   before dialing the next digit, the button can be punched as fast as desired.   The IC stores the number and pulses out the number at the correct rate with the correct make/break ratio and the switching is done with a high-voltage switching transistor.   Because the IC has already stored the dialed number in order to pulse it out at the   correct rate,   its a simple matter for telephone designers to   keep   the memory alive   and allow the telephone to   store,   recall,   and redial the Last Number Dialed (LND).   This feature enables easy redial by picking up the handset and pushing just one button. Touch tone is the most modern form of dialing. It is   fast   and less   prone to error than pulse dialing.   Compared to pulse, its major advantage is that its audio band signals can   travel   down phone   lines further than pulse, which can travel only as far   as the   local   exchange. Touch-tone can therefore   send   signals around   the   world via the telephone lines, and can   be   used   to control phone answering machines and computers.   Bell   Labs developed DTMF in order to have a dialing   system that   could travel across microwave links and work   rapidly   with computer   controlled exchanges.   Each transmitted digit consists of two separate audio tones that are mixed together. The four   vertical columns on the keypad are known as   the   high group and the four horizontal rows as the low group; the digit   8 is   composed   of 1336 Hz and 852 Hz.   The level of each   tone   is within   3   dB   of the other.   A complete touch-tone pad has 16 digits, as opposed to ten on a pulse dial.   Besides the numerals 0 to 9, a DTMF   dial has *, #, A, B, C, and D.   Although the letters are not normally found   on consumer telephones, the IC in the phone is capable   of generating them. The   * sign is usually called star or asterisk.  Ã‚   The # sign,   often referred to as the pound sign. is actually   called an   octothorpe. Although many phone users have never used   these digits      they are not, after all, ordinarily   used in   dialing phone   numbers. They   are used   for   control   purposes,   phone answering machines, bringing up remote bases, electronic banking, and repeater control.   The one use of the octothorpe that may be familiar occurs in dialing international calls from phones.   After dialing the complete number,   dialing   the octothorpe   lets the exchange know youve finished   dialing.  Ã‚   It can now begin routing your call; without the octothorpe, it would wait and time out before switching your call. Standard DTMF dials will produce a tone as long as a key   is depressed.  Ã‚   No matter   how long you press,   the   tone   will   be decoded as the appropriate digit.   The shortest duration in which a digit can be sent and decoded is about 100 milliseconds   (ms).   Its pretty   difficult   to dial by hand at   such   a   speed,   but automatic dialers can do it.   A twelve-digit long distance number can be   dialed by an automatic dialer in a little   more   than   a second about as long as it takes a pulse dial to send a   single 0 digit.(Roberts,2006) 2.9 MODULAR CONNECTORS Modular connector is the name given to a family of electrical connectors that were originally used in telephone wiring. Even though they are still used for that purpose they are used for a variety of other things as well. A modular connectors advantage over many other kinds include; small size and ease of plugging and unplugging. Many uses that originally used a bulkier connector have migrated to modular connectors. Probably the most well known applications of modular connectors is for telephone jacks and for ethernet jacks, which are nearly always modular connectors. Figure 2.2 shows types of connectors commonly used. Modular connectors were first used in the registered jack system, so registered Jack specifications describe them precisely. These are the specifications to which all practical modular connectors are built. Modular connectors come in four sizes: 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-position. A position is a place that can hold a conductor (pin). The positions need not all be used; a connector can have any even number of conductors. Unused positions are usually the outermost positions. The connectors are designed so that a plug can fit into any jack that has at least the number of positions as the plug. Where the jack has more positions than the plug, the outermost positions are unused. However, plugs from different manufacturers may not have this compatibility, and some manufacturers of eight position j